When Barbarossa brothers ruled the Mediterranean

Contributing Editor Vice Admiral (Retd) IQBAL F QUADIR gives a fascinating insight to the dominance of the Mediterranean in the 16th century.

My series of articles on ‘Pakistan and the sea’ in the Globe, narrating history of the Indian Ocean from ancient times was interrupted at the stage of Portuguese warships’ arrival in Dakkan at the start of the 16th c. AD. The reason was occurrence of two major naval events around that time in two widely separated parts of the world, which I felt readers should know. In both cases, the enterprising Admirals were Muslims, whose names and exploits Western historians, the present source of our knowledge, had purposefully kept unknown. Rather, in the case of one who was supreme over the Europeans, his name was thoroughly maligned in their chronicles. The first, Chen Ho the Chinese Admiral, who in 15th c AD, on orders of his king emperor, devastated the Dakkan (the area south of Hindusthan) origin kingdoms that had come up during 5th and 6th c. AD in the Spice Islands (South East Asia). The Chinese fleet and soldiers under him were sent to assist the newly established Muslim trading city of Malaika. Thereafter, Chen-Ho made six voyages into the Indian Ocean, which took him to far off places like Jeddah in Arabia and Madagascar in Africa. A brief history of his exploits, more diplomatic than naval, has been narrated in my last article in Globe magazine.

The second important naval event was the extension of Muslim seafarer’s hegemony to Western Mediterranean by two brothers Aruj and Khizr, the latter better known as Khair-ud-Din, which extended Islamic influence to the whole of the Mediterranean from the Levant to Gibraltar. Even the largest European naval power at that time Spain found its ships, some carrying gold from the newly discovered Americas plundered with impunity. Aruj, himself who became a Sultan in North Africa, was killed in 1518 during a land battle against Spanish forces near Tlemcen in Northwest Algeria near Morocco. After that, at the invitation of the great Sultan of Turkey, Khizr the younger brother, accepted to build a navy for Turkey that later ruled the Mediterranean till the later half of 16th century. Simultaneously, Aruj’s bold exploits were, in the words of Ernle Bradford in his book ‘The Sultan’s Admiral’, ‘To determine the pattern of life and trade in the Mediterranean until the early nineteenth century.’ This article pertains to the era of Aruj.

Not many in the world know the above mentioned facts that it were two Barbarossa brothers who emblazoned their names on the Mediterranean Sea; nor that it was the younger one who became the legend in Turkish history. Further, that it was Aruj the elder who had the red beard, which became their nickname and not the younger Khizr, who became better known as Khair-ud-Din and carried a brown or an auburn beard. Both were born on the island of Lesbos to a Janisary soldier Yaqub, who had been granted land on the island, and the widow of a Christian priest. Yaqub had four sons of whom Aruj was the eldest and Khizr the youngest, and two daughters. The father became an established potter and had a boat of his own to trade his products. Aruj helped with the boat while Khizr helped with pottery. Of the other two brothers, one became an Imam while the other a carpenter. Not much is known about the sisters. What probably turned Aruj’s career from peaceful trading into warfare at sea, was, when his father’s small galleot under Aruj’s command was attacked and captured by a large galley belonging to Christian Knights. These latter were nothing but brigands bent upon plundering commerce at sea and abducting non-Christian men, women and children to be used or sold as slaves, under a religious garb.

Their trepidation’s had caused Sultan Mehmet II, after his capture of Constantinople in 1453, to build a navy and start occupying various islands South of Turkey, which had become veritable wasps nests of Christian pirates and corsairs. Some of the bigger islands like Rhodes, Cyprus and Malta became citadels of Christian Knights of different denominations (sects), and from where they launched their unholy raids on ships and territories of Muslims.

In the attack on Aruj’s boat, his brother Ishaq was killed and he himself taken prisoner. Being ransomed about a year later, it would seem that he was immediately given command of another ship. The harsh treatment received as a galley slave no doubt left little love in him for the knights and those of their kind. Scouring the seas became his trade, and soon Aruj was much noted and highly esteemed for intrepidity among his associates. World history was in the process of a change then, and in 1492, when Aruj was about eighteen and Khizr fourteen or so, all Muslims were externed from Spain or killed. But no sooner had the banished Moors, as Europeans called the Spanish Muslims, established themselves in North Africa; they carried the war back to their oppressors. Eastern Mediterranean was by then already under sway of the newly turned Muslim sailors Ñ the Turks Ñ when the two enterprising Barbarossa brothers turned their attentions towards the western Mediterranean, under control of Christian Spain and enterprising Genoese. Around the turn of the century the red and the auburn bearded brothers arrived in the ancient port of Tunis in two galleots Ñ small open boats pulled by seventeen oars either side, with two men on each oar. The larger galley on the other hand were around one hundred and fifty feet long with two decks and twenty six oars either side below decks, each oar being manned by six men. An apt comparison between the two in modern times would be a fast manoeuvrable destroyer and a heavily armed battleship.

Aruj’s first success in Western Mediterranean came when with his two galleots he captured Roman Pope’s own trading galley and an escorting galley off Elba, and sailed back to Tunis onboard the papal galley with his own two galleots in tow. According to 16th c. Spanish historian Diego Haedo, ‘The wonder and astonishment that this notable exploit caused in Tunis, and even in Christendom, is not to be expressed, nor how celebrated the of Aruj Rais was become from that very moment; he being held and accounted, by all the world, as a most valiant and enterprising commander. And by reason his beard was extremely red, or carroty from thenceforward he was generally called Barbarossa, which in Italian signifies Red Beard.’ This success also attracted many other Turkish and Moorish entrepreneurs to collaborate and operate their galleots with Aruj Rais. His technique in the earlier years was to employ only Turkish or Muslim freeman to propel their boats in contrast with the Christian policy of using slaves, Muslims as well as Christians. This meant that everyone on Aruj’s vessels was a fighting man eager for battle. Later, Barbarossa adopted the strategy of keeping one large galley in company with him, while relying upon a number of galleots to do the fighting and secure the prizes. The galley was more like an insurance policy against running into a larger force.

The next year, 1505, proved equally profitable with the capture of a very large Spanish ship heading towards Naples, but blown South by the winds, carrying five hundred Spanish soldiers, and a great quantity of gold coins to recruit and pay his army in the Kingdom of Naples. By 1510, Aruj was one of the richest men in the Mediterranean and him with his brother Khizr; the masters of eight well built galleots and owning vast property and slaves. That year they moved to Djerba about two hundred and fifty miles South to be more independent but very likely also, because of Sultan of Tunis’ fear of Spanish retribution for actions by Aruj. Djerba itself was a Spanish garrisoned island and further successes at sea in Western Mediterranean in the next few years made the Spanish Court realize that its sea communications between Spain and Italy were now fully exposed. During 1512, Aruj suffered his first back when because of delay in arrival of Bougie’s troops and impatience of Aruj, he was unable to occupy the Spanish fort outside Bougie and in the bargain had his left shot away by canon while leading the charge. He was rushed to Tunis for surgical treatment with his left arm in tourniquet. Khizr brought his eleven ships back and en route by a stroke of luck captured a large Genoese ship deep laden with jewellery and other treasures. The incident moved greatly Louis XII of France under whose domination was Genoa at that time. But it was the Genoese Senate, which immediately dispatched a squadron of twelve large galleys to take care of Aruj. He still being too weak Khizr, though surprised by the Genoese came out with six galleots for a one sided battle. Having lost, Khizr retired to Djerba and set about reconstructing a new force. By 1514, twelve galleots were ready and Aruj by then fully recovered, set about a revenge against the Spanish at Bougie. He almost succeeded but at the moment of victory five large Spanish galleys arrived with reinforcements. A large number of Moors and Berbers immediately fled the battlefield forcing Aruj to give up the siege and withdraw. However, instead of retiring to Dgerba, Aruja decided to set up base at Djidjelli fifty miles east of Bougie. Operating from here he was able to capture three large new type of merchant ships with cannon and about one hundred soldiers onboard for self-protection. His considerations towards the locals and the mountain people nearby led them to invite Aruj to become their Sultan. He then went on to win sovereignty over Shershell and Algiers also.

Aruj’s daring finally stirred Spain into action and at the instigation of Cardinal Ximenes of Toledo, a powerful fleet was put together, with some ten thousand soldiers under the renowned Admiral Diego de Vera to exterminate for ever Turkish presence on the African coast. Some local elements had secretly been won over to destroy Aruj’s ships before they could be launched but his own agents had good information of the goings on. Admiral de Vera had fought many successful battles against the French but had no experience of combined landing operations. Thus as his galleys protected the landing of troops and horses, from seaward, Aruj descended on the landing force, at the head of Turkish troops, backed by mounted local troops, before a beach head was formed. In the words of Sandoval, Bishop of Pamplona in his ‘History of Charles V’, ‘One day Barbarossa came out, noticed that the Spaniards were in poor array, and fell upon them with his forces shouting war cries. So great was the fear that his very name inspired that the Spaniards were totally routed, with very little loss to the attackers. Almost effortlessly the Turks and their followers killed over 3,000 men as well as capturing 400.’ While turning back with his remnants, another misfortune befell Admiral Vera when a storm drove most of his fleet ashore and almost the whole of the armada was destroyed. Aruj Barbarossa was now the undisputed master of the North African coast. By land warfare, he soon extended his territories and with few exceptions Aruj became the master of almost all the territory that constitutes modern Algeria, being awarded the title of Beylerbey, by Sultan Selim of all Ottoman Empire.

During 1517 Aruj became aware of Spanish preparations to attack him through the Spanish forces in Oran. Knowing his own limitations against the power of Spain, Aruj during the winter of 1517-18 sought help from the Sultan of Fez but the Sultan prevaricated and delayed. When spring arrived with the troop laden Spanish fleet at Oran, Fez had still not moved any troops to assist. Aruj then decided to withdraw from Tlemcen seventy five miles southwest of Oran, through mountain valleys to Algiers almost two hundred and fifty to the East of Oran. His only mistake of his lifetime to depend on the assistance of another proved his undoing. The Spanish getting wind of Aruj’s departure caught his force crossing a river. He, himself, had already crossed over to the East with half his force and could have easily escaped while the other half of the force West of the river fought a delaying action. But the brave man that Aruj was, he re-crossed the river to lead the battle with his single arm. So died the founder of the kingdom of Algiers, one resident only fourteen years in North Africa. He left behind no son or daughter, but a legacy of Muslim maritime influence in western Mediterranean. The crimson brocade cloak that Aruj wore at battle found its way to the Cathedral in Cordova, which formerly was the largest mosque, and it was turned into a cloak for Saint Bartholomew. The cloak was still there in the eighteenth century and locally called La Capa de Barbarossa.